Core-insulator embedded nanosheet field-effect transistor for suppressing device-to-device variations.

Nanosheet field-effect transistors (NSFETs) have attracted considerable attention for their potential to achieve improved performance and energy efficiency compared to traditional FinFETs. Here, we present a comprehensive investigation of core-insulator-embedded nanosheet field-effect transistors (C-NSFETs), focusing on their improved performance and device-to-device (D2D) variability compared to conventional NSFETs through three-dimensional device simulations. The C-NSFETs exhibit enhanced direct-current (DC) performance, characterized by a steeper subthreshold slope and reduced off-current, indicating better gate electrostatic controllability. Furthermore, the structural design of C-NSFETs enables to demonstrate a notable resilience against D2D variations in nanosheet thickness and doping concentration. In addition, we investigate the effects of interface traps in C-NSFETs, emphasizing the importance of thermal oxidation processes in the formation of core-insulating layers to maintain optimal device performance.

Recent Developments in DNA-Nanotechnology-Powered Biosensors for Zika/Dengue Virus Molecular Diagnostics.

Zika virus (ZIKV) and dengue virus (DENV) are highly contagious and lethal mosquito-borne viruses. Global warming is steadily increasing the probability of ZIKV and DENV infection, and accurate diagnosis is required to control viral infections worldwide. Recently, research on biosensors for the accurate diagnosis of ZIKV and DENV has been actively conducted. Moreover, biosensor research using DNA nanotechnology is also increasing, and has many advantages compared to the existing diagnostic methods, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). As a bioreceptor, DNA can easily introduce a functional group at the 5' or 3' end, and can also be used as a folded structure, such as a DNA aptamer and DNAzyme. Instead of using ZIKV and DENV antibodies, a bioreceptor that specifically binds to viral proteins or nucleic acids has been fabricated and introduced using DNA nanotechnology. Technologies for detecting ZIKV and DENV can be broadly divided into electrochemical, electrical, and optical. In this review, advances in DNA-nanotechnology-based ZIKV and DENV detection biosensors are discussed.

A Bioinspired Artificial Gustatory Neuron for a Neuromorphic Based Electronic Tongue.

A novel biomimicked neuromorphic sensor for an energy efficient and highly scalable electronic tongue (E-tongue) is demonstrated with a metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). By mimicking a biological gustatory neuron, the proposed E-tongue can simultaneously detect ion concentrations of chemicals on an extended gate and encode spike signals on the MOSFET, which acts as an input neuron in a spiking neural network (SNN). Such in-sensor neuromorphic functioning can reduce the energy and area consumption of the conventional E-tongue hardware. pH-sensitive and sodium-sensitive artificial gustatory neurons are implemented by using two different sensing materials: Al2O3 for pH sensing and sodium ionophore X for sodium ion sensing. In addition, a sensitivity control function inspired by the biological sensory neuron is demonstrated. After the unit device characterization of the artificial gustatory neuron, a fully hardware-based E-tongue that can classify two distinct liquids is demonstrated to show a practical application of the artificial gustatory neurons.

A pretreatment-free electrical capacitance biosensor for exosome detection in undiluted serum.

The exosome is considered a useful biomarker for the early diagnosis of cancer. However, pretreatment of samples used in diagnosis is time-consuming. Herein, we fabricated a capacitance-based electrical biosensor that requires no pretreatment of the sample; it is composed of a DNA aptamer/molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) heterolayer on an interdigitated micro-gap electrode (IDMGE)/printed circuit board (PCB) system for detecting exosomes in an undiluted serum sample. The DNA aptamer detects the CD63 protein on the exosome as the biomarker, while the MoS2 nanoparticle enhances electrical sensitivity. In this study, for the first time, the IDMGE system was used to amplify the electrical signal efficiently for exosome detection. The IDMGE amplifies the capacitance signal as the gap between electrodes decreases, making it easy to detect the target by utilizing the heightened sensitivity. Moreover, it is possible to immobilize a bio-probe more efficiently than with an electrical sensitivity-enhancing electrode with the same area. The thiol-modified (SH-) CD63 DNA aptamer was introduced as the bio-probe that selectively binds to the CD63 protein on the exosome surface. The capacitance signal from the IDMGE electrical sensor increased linearly with the increase in the concentration of exosomes in human serum expressed on a logarithmic scale, the detection limit being 2192.6 exosomes/mL. The proposed biosensor can detect exosomes in undiluted human serum with high selectivity and sensitivity. A blind test was also carried out to test the reliability of the biosensor. The capacitance-based electrical biosensor thus offers a new platform for cancer diagnosis in the future.

Recent Advances in Aptasensor for Cytokine Detection: A Review.

Cytokines are proteins secreted by immune cells. They promote cell signal transduction and are involved in cell replication, death, and recovery. Cytokines are immune modulators, but their excessive secretion causes uncontrolled inflammation that attacks normal cells. Considering the properties of cytokines, monitoring the secretion of cytokines in vivo is of great value for medical and biological research. In this review, we offer a report on recent studies for cytokine detection, especially studies on aptasensors using aptamers. Aptamers are single strand nucleic acids that form a stable three-dimensional structure and have been receiving attention due to various characteristics such as simple production methods, low molecular weight, and ease of modification while performing a physiological role similar to antibodies.

Surface Potential-Controlled Oscillation in FET-Based Biosensors.

Field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensors have garnered significant attention for their label-free electrical detection of charged biomolecules. Whereas conventional output parameters such as threshold voltage and channel current have been widely used for the detection and quantitation of analytes of interest, they require bulky instruments and specialized readout circuits, which often limit point-of-care testing applications. In this study, we demonstrate a simple conversion method that transforms the surface potential into an oscillating signal as an output of the FET-based biosensor. The oscillation frequency is proposed as a parameter for FET-based biosensors owing to its intrinsic advantages of simple and compact implementation of readout circuits as well as high compatibility with neuromorphic applications. An extended-gate biosensor comprising an Al2O3-deposited sensing electrode and a readout transistor is connected to a ring oscillator that generates surface potential-controlled oscillation for pH sensing. Electrical measurement of the oscillation frequency as a function of pH reveals that the oscillation frequency can be used as a sensitive and reliable output parameter in FET-based biosensors for the detection of chemical and biological species. We confirmed that the oscillation frequency is directly correlated with the threshold voltage. For signal amplification, the effects of circuit parameters on pH sensitivity are investigated using different methods, including electrical measurements, analytical calculations, and circuit simulations. An Arduino board to measure the oscillation frequency is integrated with the proposed sensor to enable portable and real-time pH measurement for point-of-care testing applications.

Recent Advances in Biomolecule-Nanomaterial Heterolayer-Based Charge Storage Devices for Bioelectronic Applications.

With the acceleration of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the development of information and communications technology requires innovative information storage devices and processing devices with low power and ultrahigh stability. Accordingly, bioelectronic devices have gained considerable attention as a promising alternative to silicon-based devices because of their various applications, including human-body-attached devices, biomaterial-based computation systems, and biomaterial-nanomaterial hybrid-based charge storage devices. Nanomaterial-based charge storage devices have witnessed considerable development owing to their similarity to conventional charge storage devices and their ease of applicability. The introduction of a biomaterial-to-nanomaterial-based system using a combination of biomolecules and nanostructures provides outstanding electrochemical, electrical, and optical properties that can be applied to the fabrication of charge storage devices. Here, we describe the recent advances in charge storage devices containing a biomolecule and nanoparticle heterolayer including (1) electrical resistive charge storage devices, (2) electrochemical biomemory devices, (3) field-effect transistors, and (4) biomemristors. Progress in biomolecule-nanomaterial heterolayer-based charge storage devices will lead to unprecedented opportunities for the integration of information and communications technology, biotechnology, and nanotechnology for the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

Aptamer-Based Field-Effect Transistor for Detection of Avian Influenza Virus in Chicken Serum.

Early diagnosis of the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus (AIV) is significant for preventing and controlling a global pandemic. However, there is no existing electrical biosensor for detecting biomarkers for AIV in clinically relevant samples such as chicken serum. Herein, we report the first use of an aptamer-functionalized field-effect transistor (FET) as a label-free sensor for AIV detection in chicken serum. A DNA aptamer is employed as a sensitive and selective receptor for hemagglutinin (HA) protein, which is a biomarker for AIVs. This aptamer is immobilized on a gold microelectrode that is connected to the gate of a reusable FET transducer. The specific binding of the target protein results in a change in the surface potential, which generates a signal response of the FET transducer. We hypothesize that a conformational change in the DNA aptamer upon specific binding of HA protein may alter the surface potential. The signal of the aptamer-based FET biosensor increased linearly with the increase in the logarithm of HA protein concentration in a dynamic range of 10 pM to 10 nM with a detection limit of 5.9 pM. The selectivity of the biosensor for HA protein was confirmed by employing relevant interfering proteins. The proposed biosensor was successfully applied to the selective detection of HA protein in a chicken serum sample. Owing to its simple and low-cost architecture, portability, and sensitivity, the aptamer-based FET biosensor has potential as a point-of-care diagnosis of H5N1 AIVs in clinical samples.

Joule-Heated and Suspended Silicon Nanowire Based Sensor for Low-Power and Stable Hydrogen Detection.

We developed self-heated, suspended, and palladium-decorated silicon nanowires (Pd-SiNWs) for high-performance hydrogen (H2) gas sensing with low power consumption and high stability against diverse environmental noises. To prepare the Pd-SiNWs, SiNWs were fabricated by conventional complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) processes, and Pd nanoparticles were coated on the SiNWs by a physical vapor deposition method. Suspended Pd-SiNWs were simply obtained by etching buried oxide layer and Pd deposition. Joule heating of Pd-SiNW (<1 mW) enables the detection of H2 gas with a faster response and without the reduction of sensitivity unlike other Pd-based H2 gas sensors. We proposed a H2 sensing model using oxygen adsorption on the Pd nanoparticle-coated silicon oxide surface to understand the H2 response of Joule-heated Pd-SiNWs. A suspended Pd-SiNW showed a similar transient sensing response with around four times lower Joule heating power (147 µW) than the substrate-bound Pd-SiNW (613 µW). The effect of interfering gas on the Pd-SiNW was investigated, and it was found that the Joule heating of Pd-SiNW helps to maintain the H2 sensing performance in humid or carbon monoxide environments.

Nanoscale FET-Based Transduction toward Sensitive Extended-Gate Biosensors.

Owing to their simple and low-cost architecture, extended-gate biosensors based on the combination of a disposable sensing part and a reusable transducer have been widely utilized for the label-free electrical detection of chemical and biological species. Previous studies have demonstrated that sensitive and selective detection of ions and biomolecules can be achieved by controlled modification of the sensing part with an ion-selective membrane and receptors of interest. However, no systematic studies have been performed on the impact of the transducer on sensing performance. In this paper, we introduce the concept of a nanoscale field-effect transistor (FET) as a reusable and sensitive transducer for extended-gate biosensors. The capacitive effect from the external sensing part can degrade the sensing performance, but the nanoscale FET can reduce this effect. The nanoscale FET with a gate-all-around (GAA) structure exhibits a higher pH sensitivity than a commercially available FET, which is widely used in conventional extended-gate biosensors. A sensitivity reduction is observed for the commercial FET, whereas the pH sensitivity is insensitive to the area of the sensing region in the nanoscale FET, thus allowing the scaling of the detection area. Our analysis based on a capacitive model suggests that the high pH sensitivity in the compact sensing area originates from the small input capacitance of the nanoscale FET transducer. Moreover, a decrease in the nanowire width of the GAA FET leads to an improvement in the pH sensitivity. The extended-gate approach with the nanoscale FET-based transduction can pave the way for a highly sensitive analysis of chemical and biological species with a small sample volume.

pH Sensing Characteristics of Extended-Gate Field-Effect Transistor with Al2O3 Layer.

A simple and stable pH sensor based on an extended-gate field-effect transistor (EGFET) is demonstrated using electron-beam deposited Al2O3 as a pH sensing layer. The threshold voltage of the EGFET is modulated by different pH values of the buffer solution. A control experiment with a bare Au electrode confirms that the stable pH sensing response with linearity and reproducibility originates from the Al2O3 sensing layer. The minimum area of the pH sensing layer is estimated by considering that the different sizes of the sensing layer are easily modeled with different values of external capacitors connected to the readout transistor. The study verifies that the pH detection accuracy is improved by using the reference electrode with a KCl electrolyte.

Development of the Troponin Detection System Based on the Nanostructure.

During the last 30 years, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported a gradual increase in the number of patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD), not only in developed but also in developing countries. In particular, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is one of the severe CVDs because of the high death rate, damage to the body, and various complications. During these harmful effects, rapid diagnosis of AMI is key for saving patients with CVD in an emergency. The prompt diagnosis and proper treatment of patients with AMI are important to increase the survival rate of these patients. To treat patients with AMI quickly, detection of a CVD biomarker at an ultra-low concentration is essential. Cardiac troponins (cTNs), cardiac myoglobin (cMB), and creatine kinase MB are typical biomarkers for AMI detection. An increase in the levels of those biomarkers in blood implies damage to cardiomyocytes and thus is related to AMI progression. In particular, cTNs are regarded as a gold standard biomarker for AMI diagnosis. The conventional TN detection system for detection of AMI requires long measurement time and is labor-intensive and tedious. Therefore, the demand for sensitive and selective TN detection techniques is increasing at present. To meet this demand, several approaches and methods have been applied to develop a TN detection system based on a nanostructure. In the present review, the authors reviewed recent advances in TN biosensors with a focus on four detection systems: (1) An electrochemical (EC) TN nanobiosensor, (2) field effect transistor (FET)-based TN nanobiosensor, (3) surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based TN nanobiosensor and (4) surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)-based TN nanobiosensor.

Recent Advances in AIV Biosensors Composed of Nanobio Hybrid Material.

Since the beginning of the 2000s, globalization has accelerated because of the development of transportation systems that allow for human and material exchanges throughout the world. However, this globalization has brought with it the rise of various pathogenic viral agents, such as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Zika virus, and Dengue virus. In particular, avian influenza virus (AIV) is highly infectious and causes economic, health, ethnical, and social problems to human beings, which has necessitated the development of an ultrasensitive and selective rapid-detection system of AIV. To prevent the damage associated with the spread of AIV, early detection and adequate treatment of AIV is key. There are traditional techniques that have been used to detect AIV in chickens, ducks, humans, and other living organisms. However, the development of a technique that allows for the more rapid diagnosis of AIV is still necessary. To achieve this goal, the present article reviews the use of an AIV biosensor employing nanobio hybrid materials to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of the technique while also reducing the detection time and high-throughput process time. This review mainly focused on four techniques: the electrochemical detection system, electrical detection method, optical detection methods based on localized surface plasmon resonance, and fluorescence.

Ambient effects on electrical characteristics of CVD-grown monolayer MoS2 field-effect transistors.

Monolayer materials are sensitive to their environment because all of the atoms are at their surface. We investigate how exposure to the environment affects the electrical properties of CVD-grown monolayer MoS2 by monitoring electrical parameters of MoS2 field-effect transistors as their environment is changed from atmosphere to high vacuum. The mobility increases and contact resistance decreases simultaneously as either the pressure is reduced or the sample is annealed in vacuum. We see a previously unobserved, non-monotonic change in threshold voltage with decreasing pressure. This result could be explained by charge transfer on the MoS2 channel and Schottky contact formation due to adsorbates at the interface between the gold contacts and MoS2. Additionally, from our electrical measurements it is plausible to infer that at room temperature and pressure water and oxygen molecules adsorbed on the surface act as interface traps and scattering centers with a density of several 1012 cm-2 eV-1, degrading the electrical properties of monolayer MoS2.

Temperature measurement of Joule heated silicon micro/nanowires using selectively decorated quantum dots.

We developed a novel method to measure local temperature at micro/nano-scale regions using selective deposition of quantum dots (QDs) as a sensitive temperature probe and measured the temperature of Joule heated silicon microwires (SiMWs) and silicon nanowires (SiNWs) by this method. The QDs are selectively coated only on the surface of the SiMWs and SiNWs by a sequential process composed of selective opening of a polymethyl methacrylate layer via Joule heating, covalent bonding of QDs, and lift-off process. The temperatures of the Joule-heated SiMWs and SiNWs can be measured by characterizing the temperature-dependent shift of photoluminescence peak of the selectively deposited QDs even with far-field optics. The validity of the extracted temperature has been also confirmed by comparing with numerical simulation results. The proposed method can potentially provide micro/nanoscale measurement of localized temperatures for a wide range of electrical and optical devices.

In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy Modulation of Transport in Graphene Nanoribbons.

In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) electronic transport measurements in nanoscale systems have been previously confined to two-electrode configurations. Here, we use the focused electron beam of a TEM to fabricate a three-electrode geometry from a continuous 2D material where the third electrode operates as side gate in a field-effect transistor configuration. Specifically, we demonstrate TEM nanosculpting of freestanding graphene sheets into graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) with proximal graphene side gates, together with in situ TEM transport measurements of the resulting GNRs, whose conductance is modulated by the side-gate potential. The TEM electron beam displaces carbon atoms from the graphene sheet, and its position is controlled with nanometer precision, allowing the fabrication of GNRs of desired width immediately prior to each transport measurement. We also model the corresponding electric field profile in this three-terminal geometry. The implementation of an in situ TEM three-terminal platform shown here further extends the use of a TEM for device characterization. This approach can be easily generalized for the investigation of other nanoscale systems (2D materials, nanowires, and single molecules) requiring the correlation of transport and atomic structure.

Cross-Talk Between Ionic and Nanoribbon Current Signals in Graphene Nanoribbon-Nanopore Sensors for Single-Molecule Detection.

Nanopores are now being used not only as an ionic current sensor but also as a means to localize molecules near alternative sensors with higher sensitivity and/or selectivity. One example is a solid-state nanopore embedded in a graphene nanoribbon (GNR) transistor. Such a device possesses the high conductivity needed for higher bandwidth measurements and, because of its single-atomic-layer thickness, can improve the spatial resolution of the measurement. Here measurements of ionic current through the nanopore are shown during double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) translocation, along with the simultaneous response of the neighboring GNR due to changes in the surrounding electric potential. Cross-talk originating from capacitive coupling between the two measurement channels is observed, resulting in a transient response in the GNR during DNA translocation; however, a modulation in device conductivity is not observed via an electric-field-effect response during DNA translocation. A field-effect response would scale with GNR source-drain voltage (Vds), whereas the capacitive coupling does not scale with Vds . In order to take advantage of the high bandwidth potential of such sensors, the field-effect response must be enhanced. Potential field calculations are presented to outline a phase diagram for detection within the device parameter space, charting a roadmap for future optimization of such devices.

Label-Free and Real-Time Detection of Avian Influenza Using Nanowire Field Effect Transistors.

Real-time and label-free detection of antibodies from avian influenza (anti-AI) in an aqueous solution is demonstrated with the use of a nanowire field effect transistor. A real-time measurement system is constructed without leakage paths through the solution medium. The current through the nanowire changes significantly after an injection of an anti-AI solution onto the device, which was previously functionalized by the antigen of AI as a probe of anti-AI. In contrast, no significant response arises when an anti-AI solution is injected onto a non-functionalized device. Therefore, the real-time detection of specific antibody-antigen interaction of the AI is successfully implemented for a chip-based biosensor.

Self-heated silicon nanowires for high performance hydrogen gas detection.

Self-heated silicon nanowire sensors for high-performance, ultralow-power hydrogen detection have been developed. A top-down nanofabrication method based on well-established semiconductor manufacturing technology was utilized to fabricate silicon nanowires in wafer scale with high reproducibility and excellent compatibility with electronic readout circuits. Decoration of palladium nanoparticles onto the silicon nanowires enables sensitive and selective detection of hydrogen gas at room temperature. Self-heating of silicon nanowire sensors allows us to enhance response and recovery performances to hydrogen gas, and to reduce the influence of interfering gases such as water vapor and carbon monoxide. A short-pulsed heating during recovery was found to be effective for additional reduction of operation power as well as recovery characteristics. This self-heated silicon nanowire gas sensor will be suitable for ultralow-power applications such as mobile telecommunication devices and wireless sensing nodes.

Highly integrated synthesis of heterogeneous nanostructures on nanowire heater array.

We have proposed a new method for the multiplexed synthesis of heterogeneous nanostructures using a top-down fabricated nanowire heater array. Hydrothermally synthesized nanostructures can be grown only on the heated nanowire through nanoscale temperature control using a Joule heated nanowire. We have demonstrated the selective synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires and copper oxide (CuO) nanostructures, as well as their surface modification with noble metal nanoparticles, using a nanowire heater array. Furthermore, we could fabricate an array of heterogeneous nanostructures via Joule heating of individual nanowire heaters and changing of the precursor solutions in a sequential manner. We have formed a parallel array of palladium (Pd) coated ZnO nanowires and gold (Au) coated ZnO nanowires, as well as a parallel array of ZnO nanowires and CuO nanospikes, in the microscale region by using the developed method.